The Medieval Era of Indian Classical Music

The History of Indian Classical Music can be broadly categorized into the following four periods:

1. The Ancient Period: from prehistoric times to 400CE

2. The Medieval Period: from the 5th century to the 15th century

3. The Modern Period: from the 16th to the mid 20th century

4. The Post Independence Period: from the mid 20th century onwards

The Medieval Period in Indian Classical Music roughly lasted for a millennium from the fifth century until the fifteenth century. This era marked the bifurcation of the form of art into the two contemporary forms it is practiced in today: Hindustani Classical Music and Carnatic Classical Music. This division happened towards the end of the Medieval Age. Since the Vedic Age until then, music in India had developed fruitfully. It was during this era that the concept of the Raga was firmly established, and some of the compositions which were preserved are still practiced and performed today such as Jayadeva’s Ashtapadis and Annamacharya’s Keerthanais. In this article, the early Medieval Era until the bifurcation is elaborated on.

The Gupta Period (320 BC - 540 AD)

Indian History refers to the Gupta period as the ‘Golden Age of arts, culture and learning’.

This period was characterized by Kalidasa, a courtesan of king Vikramaditya (380-413 AD). He was a lyrical poet, who also wrote lyrical poems and plays. The poem ‘Meghadoot’, the epic ‘Raghuvamsha’, and the play ‘Shakuntala’ are some of his best masterpieces. Kalidasa’s work featured music and dance frequently, therefore bearing testimony to the importance and prevalence of music during the Gupta Period. Kalidasa’s works mention musical instruments like the Parivadini vina, Vipanchi veena, Pushkar, Mridang, Vamshi and Shankha, different types of songs like the Kakaligeet, Streegeet and Apsarogeeti, technical terms like Murchana, Swarasaptaka and Tana and qualities of voice like Kinnarkanthi and Valguvagam. A Buddhist Monk named Fa-Hien explored the Gupta empire extensively. He has also commented about the significance of music in society. The Gupta King Harshavardhan (606-648 AD) was a renowned singer himself. Music played a crucial role in his plays.

This was the era where music became an integral part of theatre and storytelling. The ritualistic traditions were carried forward from the Vedic era, and therefore music in the form of Vedic Hymns were sung at temple precincts during rituals and sacrifices. The performing arts were a mandatory component of social gatherings and princely courts. Here, in semi-closed courts, the effect of stringed instruments and vocal timbres were more pronounced. Therefore, performance halls incorporated such architectural structures. The Gupta period introduced new genres of music, specific to the type of gatherings. The music performed at temple courtyards was called samaj, and the style performed at the temple space was called the ghata-nibandhan. This is how Indian Classical Music evolved during the Gupta period.

Dattilam (400 AD)

Datillam, written around 400 AD, focuses primarily on the development of Ragas. It is an extremely detailed treatise on the organization of swaras and tonal material into Ragas. It sheds light on the 22 microtonal notes (shrutis) placed within a saptak/octave, the process of rearranging the notes in a sequence (Murchana), and the permutation and combination of swara sequences (tanam). It describes the 18 jatis which are the fundamental melodic structures of jati-gayan. Jatis preceded the Ragas. They have 10 key characteristics which resemble those of Hindustani ragas. The names of Jatis reflect their origins.

The Dattilam played an integral role in the transition from sama-music to the contemporary Raga music practised today.

Brihaddeshi (900 AD)

This was the first text to describe music after the Natyashastra. This was written before Islamic music influenced Indian Classical Music . It was written by sage Matanga. This is the first text to elaborate and firmly establish the concept of Ragas as we know them today. Although the emphasis was laid on Ragas, it was only one of the many existing entities in music at that time. Brihaddeshi lays the foundation of the system of Melas which is used to classify Ragas. Matanga Muni begins by describing Nada (sound) as one of the subtlest vibrations which is the basis of all performing arts. He then goes on to derive the gramas (musical elements) chronologically from Nada:

• Shruti

• Swara

• Murchana

• Tana

• Jati

• Raga

This is how the Brihaddeshi played a crucial role in the development and evolution of Indian Classical Music.

Gita Govinda (1100 AD)

Written by Sanskrit poet Jayadeva, this treatise was the first to set melody and rhythm together in a uniform pattern. This was known as Chhanda Prabha, which literally translates to meter composition. In Gita Govinda, Jayadeva assigns a specific Raga and Tala to each song. The work is divided into 12 chapters, and each chapter contains 24 songs (totally 288 songs). The songs from this text are called Ashtapadis which means they had eight parts.

It was the first to introduce and set the standard for the Nayaka- Nayaki concept. The Ashtapadis were predominantly composed on Radha and Krishna. They explored emotions such as love, devotion, dismay, sorrow, and joy through three main characters: the Nayaka (hero), the Nayaki (heroine), and the Sakhi (the friend). These three characters together symbolise the concept of Moksha. The Nayaki is the devotee, the Sakhi the Jnana Guru, and the Nayaka the God.

Jayadeva’s Ashtapadis were one of the last to be composed when India’s Classical Music was still a unanimous art form. Although the melodies have changed, these Ashtapadis are still performed today at concerts and temples, as an expression of devotion.

Sangita Ratnakara (1210-1247 AD)

The Sangita Ratnakara was written by Sarangadeva. It classified Ragas and assigned a specific season and time to each one, based on the ornate vocal techniques and swaras in each unique raga. This belief stems from the notion that a specific swara can evoke a specific emotion, as can certain instruments and vocal techniques. A few details such as named of the Ragas hint at the subtle influence of Islam Culture on Indian Classical Music. Sarangadeva emphasized on the influence of culture and region on music, and how the art form is ever changing and versatile.

He introduced the concept of Vadi and Samvadi - the importance of certain notes in a raga, the way the Raga is sung and played, and embellishments. He spoke about how music explores and portrays Bhava (emotions). It also explains the construction and playing technique of the 14 kinds of drums.

Raja Mansingh Tomar of Gwalior (1486-1516 AD) was the driving force behind the Dhrupad. He composed three volumes of songs:

• Vishnupadas

• Dhrupads

• Hori and Dhamar compositions

His compositions were heavily influenced by Islamic music, as his court consisted of musicians of both origins. He also wrote a comprehensive text on music in Hindi called “Mankuthuhal”.

This treatise was one of the first after the Natyashastra to explore emotions portrayed through music, and contributed significantly to the contemporary practice of Indian Classical Music. The Sangita Ratnakara was the first historical text to mention the Dhrupad - a typical Hindustani composition type. Elements from Islamic culture and Indian culture are reflected in the compositions in this text. This is how the Sangita Ratnakara paved the way for Hindustani Classical Music .

This was the history of Indian Classical Music in the Medieval age while it was still intact as one form of art.

The bifurcation of Indian Classical Music into Hindustani Classical Music and Carnatic Classical music had already begun subtly in the late 11th century. This division was facilitated by the influence of Islamic and Persian Culture. Nizamudin Chishti, Kaikubad, and other such leaders influenced Indian art forms heavily.

Shakthi Sivakumaran

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Sources:

1. “Brihaddeshi.” Sreenivasarao’s Blogs, sreenivasaraos.com/tag/brihaddeshi/. Accessed 2 Feb. 2022.

2. Origin and Development of Indian Music I - The National Institute Of ..., www.nios.ac.in/media/documents/Carnatic_Music_243/carnaticmusicbook1/ch1.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb. 2022.

3. says:, Neyet. “Chronology of Indian Classical Music.” Rythm Seven, 9 Sept. 2012, rythmseven.wordpress.com/articles/chronology-of-indian-classical-music/.

4. Subramaniam, L., and Viji Subramaniam. Classical Music of India: A Practical Guide. Tranquebar Press, 2018.

5. “Timeline of Hindustani Music.” David Philipson - Bansuri, davidphilipson.com/music/timeline/. Accessed 2 Feb. 2022.